GRE作文時(shí)間怎么分配
GRE寫作部分的時(shí)間也是比較緊張的,大家需要通過半個(gè)小時(shí)的時(shí)間,完成兩篇作文的寫作。因此大家在備考中,對(duì)于時(shí)間的把握,也要提前練習(xí)。那么GRE寫作時(shí)間具體的應(yīng)該怎么分配呢?下面小編為大家整理了詳細(xì)的內(nèi)容,供大家參考!
GRE作文時(shí)間怎么分配
一、GRE寫作考試時(shí)間介紹:
新GRE寫作要求考生在30分鐘+30分鐘內(nèi)分別完成兩篇文章,它是美國所有作文考試中時(shí)間最長而質(zhì)量要求最高的一類作文考試。
二、GRE寫作考試具體內(nèi)容:
新GRE考試寫作包括兩個(gè)不同的部分:
1. Issue task(30min),要求作者根據(jù)所給題目,完成一篇表明立場的邏輯立論文。
2.Argument task(30min),要求考生分析所給題目,完成一篇駁論文,指出并且有力的駁斥題目中的主要邏輯錯(cuò)誤。
三、GRE作文時(shí)間如何安排:
第一步:審題、確定立場、列出理由
最少3分鐘最多5分鐘。
要避免兩個(gè)極端:
a.用時(shí)太少,理由沒有想清楚就開始寫,不僅造成文章邏輯結(jié)構(gòu)不清,還會(huì)引起行文中頻繁地修正,欲速則不達(dá);
b.用時(shí)太多,不要追求一次思考就能把每一條理由及相關(guān)例證都想出來。其實(shí)想出兩條之后就可以動(dòng)筆,各個(gè)理由的例證可以寫到該段時(shí)邊思考邊寫。這一點(diǎn)你不必懷疑,只要你的思維還是正常的,一定能做到。
第二步:正文寫作最少22分鐘最多26分鐘
a.各段寫作時(shí),注意對(duì)段落的不同部分給予不同的重視。主題句給予最大重視,注意煉句,別說你不想寫主題句,主題句可以使讀者和筆者本人更清晰該段落寫什么。各段中支持性細(xì)節(jié)寫作不必遵循相同的模式。
有n種選擇可供參考:1.舉具體事例;2.說對(duì)方相對(duì)缺點(diǎn);3.使用數(shù)據(jù);4.使用假想例子;5.使用類比、比喻、引用等修辭手段來論述。哪一種你最容易想出來,就用哪一種。
b.考前將文章開頭、結(jié)尾、例證、讓步等各種句型背熟練,并且練習(xí)和模考時(shí)把他們用熟。別試圖在考場上再去臨時(shí)決定比如哪種開頭好,怎樣結(jié)尾好。使用自己選中的套路。
c.當(dāng)寫作考試還有5分鐘結(jié)束時(shí),一般你應(yīng)該已經(jīng)寫到最后一條理由,或者已經(jīng)在做結(jié)尾。要確保文章有結(jié)尾段。
第三步:檢查需要1-3分鐘,有側(cè)重點(diǎn)地檢查
a.句法:確保每句話是完整的,有謂語,且簡單句只有一個(gè)謂語。
b.時(shí)態(tài):文章絕大部分使用的是一般現(xiàn)在時(shí);一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)第三人稱要使用單數(shù);使用過去發(fā)生的事例時(shí)用的是過去時(shí);c.主謂一致按此三步,持續(xù)練習(xí)5篇以上,可以確保時(shí)間問題。
C. 拼寫:保證沒有太多拼寫上的錯(cuò)誤,特別是開頭結(jié)尾和每段主題句這種批閱考官必然會(huì)看的部分。絕不能出現(xiàn)拼寫方面的低級(jí)錯(cuò)誤。
GRE寫作首段技巧的解析
厭倦了開頭反問、重復(fù)題目的陳腐?致力于在ISSUE寫作中取得更好的成績?頭疼于無從起筆、草草了事?相信在經(jīng)歷了入門階段后,不少同學(xué)在寫作ISSUE時(shí)都會(huì)遇到這種問題。由于語言背景差異,更接近于平常寫作的ISSUE缺乏一個(gè)套路化的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),不能象ARGUMENT那樣在寫作中標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化,因此長久以來一直是習(xí)慣了根據(jù)已知條件列方程擅長數(shù)學(xué)的中國GRE考生的大難題,加之新東方的特訓(xùn),將這種不能量化的文章量化,導(dǎo)致文章缺乏新意,甚至因?yàn)楣潭ㄌ茁凡荒軐?duì)題而離題甚遠(yuǎn),或者一時(shí)偷懶而被判雷同,血的教訓(xùn)告訴我們,ISSUE的寫作不能局限于模版、經(jīng)典結(jié)構(gòu)、經(jīng)典例證。而作為讀者對(duì)全文第一印象的基石,開頭則在這其中起到了重要的作用,俗話說的好,好的開始是成功的一半,一個(gè)精確的開頭可以讓你避免寫作中出現(xiàn)跑題、幫助你整理思路,而一個(gè)個(gè)性的開頭則能讓你的文章使人眼前一亮,提前賺個(gè)印象分。用戴云教主的話說,“你一出現(xiàn),一切改變,他(閱卷官)爽(給你打高分),你也爽?!被谝陨显颍也畔氚堰@個(gè)帖子寫出來,希望此文能引起大家對(duì)ISSUE套路寫作的思考,在寫作中更多的獨(dú)立思考,訓(xùn)練自己的思維能力,從而寫出更為個(gè)性、有力的文章。
首先說精確的ISSUE開頭,最精確的ISSUE開頭是什么?恩,"I agree with the speaker that (把題目抄一遍)",這個(gè)開頭絕對(duì)不跑題。問題是,除了"I agree",這個(gè)開頭還有什么信息量么?
類似的開頭還有"Is (把題目抄一遍)? I agree.""Who (把題目謂賓成分抄一遍)? I think it's (把題目主語抄一遍)""The (題目抄一遍) has been widely discussed. I think it's 題目一部分"等等
此類開頭在我改過的作文里大概占20%左右,是最簡單的開頭方式,因?yàn)榇艘咨鲜智覜]難度所以廣受歡迎。
另外還有30%左右的ISSUE是這種開頭的發(fā)展型,通常會(huì)在后面接個(gè)"However, under certain conditions..."于是成了經(jīng)典的讓步結(jié)構(gòu),或者直接否定題目觀點(diǎn),以However為轉(zhuǎn)接后面討論特別情況,這種用在題目敘述比較絕對(duì)的題中比較多,比如“Only _x can make _x”這種。
第一類開頭的缺點(diǎn)很明顯--沒有信息量,其實(shí)寫成"I don't agree with the speaker."就行了,這種開頭對(duì)于題目內(nèi)容比較簡單的ISSUE用起來很合適,省下的時(shí)間可以用到BODY中去。然而由于信息量不足,它容易造成的影響是作者在之后的論點(diǎn)發(fā)展中缺乏方向,經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)分論點(diǎn)重疊、車轱轆話來回說的問題。
第二類開頭比第一類略好,至少讓步段和主觀點(diǎn)段不會(huì)觀點(diǎn)重疊,但第一,certain conditions/specific situation/...這種“分情況討論”的前提沒有信息量,說到底還是廢話,第二,由于讓步條件不明,這樣的文章寫出來經(jīng)常前后自相矛盾或者跑題。
這兩種開頭起碼還能保證觀點(diǎn)明確,如果BODY寫的好也能拿到4.5甚至5分,但是可能是嫌這開頭太模式化,或者不滿意這種開頭,自己寫了些變體,結(jié)果使這種開頭本來僅存的優(yōu)勢也失去了--即觀點(diǎn)明確。請(qǐng)記住,ISSUE為立論,必有主論點(diǎn),這個(gè)主論點(diǎn)可以立場中立,但一定要立場鮮明,這樣才能使之后的BODY有效為論點(diǎn)服務(wù)。
來看個(gè)板油的習(xí)作(我隨便從第一頁的ISSUE中抽的,感謝RayTong同學(xué) )
TOPIC: ISSUE88 - "Technologies not only influence but actually determine social customs and ethics."
The issue that the technologies' effects on our society has been widely discussed. Somebody assert that technologies not only influence but actually determine social customs and ethics while others argue that technologies can not determine our custom and ethics. However, I have my special opinion that technologies indeed have great affected all aspect of our lives even traditional customs and ethics, but in contract, it is determined by our customs and ethics.
To begin with, as the developing of the technologies, the conditions of our lives have changed grandly from the old days.……
Moreover, the change of our daily lives bring by technologies exert a subtle influence on social customs and ethics. ……
However, technologies cannot determine social customs and ethics all the time, and in contrary, it is determined by the social customs and ethics.
……這里我截選了開頭和各段主題句,從結(jié)構(gòu)上來講這個(gè)開頭是屬于第二種(陳述+轉(zhuǎn)折),但是內(nèi)容卻是第一種(復(fù)述題目陳述觀點(diǎn)),However之前的內(nèi)容并不是作者的觀點(diǎn),只是重復(fù)了題目的觀點(diǎn),However之后是作者觀點(diǎn)。本質(zhì)上講這個(gè)開頭跟I don't agree with the speaker說的內(nèi)容是一樣的。
接下來看三個(gè)主題句,有什么問題么?第一、二個(gè)都是在說Somebody,第三個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)到I have的內(nèi)容--作者把第一種觀點(diǎn)的內(nèi)容按第二種觀點(diǎn)來展開了,他并沒有說自己同意somebody的說法(從howeve來看是反對(duì)的),卻花了兩段去論證somebody的說法。這時(shí)開頭的定位不明確導(dǎo)致了文章的方向不明確。
再看一個(gè)比較標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的第二類開頭(還是隨機(jī)抽的,感謝板油dg336688)
TOPIC: ISSUE12 - "People's attitudes are determined more by their immediate situation or surroundings than by any internal characteristic."
According to some common experiences, some people assert that "people's attitudes are determined more by their immediate situation or surroundings than by any internal characteristic". I think this kind of statement is rather assertive and lack of comprehensive understanding about the relationship between people's attitudes and its causing factors. Merely from its literal statement, I think the most majority of people probably can hardly accept this kind of opinion as well as mine. Certainly, immediate situation or surroundings shall make a great influences on people's attitudes , but internal characteristic of people can also make a difference. We get to have all-round and insightful thoughts to think it over.
On one hand , undeniably, people's attitudes are sometimes greatly influenced by outside surroundings.
On another hand, to some extent, sometimes our attitudes are also affected by internal characteristic.
這是個(gè)典型的由第二類開頭模式造成的跑題,在討論個(gè)別情況的限定條件時(shí)作者沒有給出具體的限定條件,于是造成在論證過程中兩面沒有比較性,這個(gè)方面,如何如何,那個(gè)方面,如何如何,最后,兩個(gè)方面,怎樣怎樣。注意題目的敘述是“more”,就是說作者沒說一定哪個(gè)方面有哪個(gè)方面沒有,而是一個(gè)比較型的題目,因此要對(duì)這兩種情況的條件進(jìn)行比較,因此在開頭需要表明態(tài)度,至少說一句"Since the situations vary so diversely, we cannot make an absolute conclusion that ... is more than ....“ 不然文章論證內(nèi)容跟題目就沒有了契合點(diǎn)。
這個(gè)錯(cuò)誤就引出了讓步式開頭的解決方案--怎樣的讓步式開頭可以避免跑題/觀點(diǎn)不明確?
首先說下讓步觀點(diǎn)的出發(fā)點(diǎn),即辯證法,凡事都是雙刃劍,其影響存在對(duì)立統(tǒng)一的兩面,提出讓步觀點(diǎn)一是可以讓自己的觀點(diǎn)全面,從而封上被攻擊的漏洞,二也可以在對(duì)付有些難題的時(shí)候不至于無話可說。也因此由于“對(duì)立”比“統(tǒng)一”更直觀,所以很多人在寫作時(shí)容易忽視了“統(tǒng)一”,于是自相矛盾。
其實(shí)達(dá)成統(tǒng)一并不難,只要在觀點(diǎn)中有一個(gè)明確的態(tài)度,給出一個(gè)不含糊的解決方案就可以了。我們看看范文是怎么做的:
題目:
"In our time, specialists of all kinds are highly overrated. We need more generalists -- people who can provide broad perspectives."
In this era of rapid social and technological change leading to increasing life complexity and psychological displacement, both positive and negative effects among persons in Western society call for a balance in which there are both specialists and generalists.
非常簡短的開頭,一個(gè)分句給出背景,然后給出觀點(diǎn):call for a balance。同樣是題目說到more,作者用了非常直接的手段點(diǎn)明立場,平衡,沒有什么more不more的,誰也不more,然后后文就從兩個(gè)方面來闡述這個(gè)問題。有人可能說,這不是還是沒有重點(diǎn)么?沒錯(cuò),作者在二選一的選擇中沒有做出選擇,但是他的立場很明確:我就是不選擇,因?yàn)槲矣羞@些理由……
同樣道理,在遇到題目絕對(duì)敘述的時(shí)候,我們可以用平衡觀點(diǎn)來說,Admittedly....However, we cannot neglect....或者I don't agree...since in some aspects...這種時(shí)候開頭在兩個(gè)不同情況存在的前提下為二者達(dá)成共識(shí)形成一個(gè)中心句,就能有效統(tǒng)領(lǐng)全文了。
以上兩種開頭可以說是最簡潔有效的,通常不超過半分鐘就能搞定,對(duì)于時(shí)間有限的同學(xué)而言很實(shí)用。但需要注意的是,這種開頭不僅僅千篇一律破壞閱卷官對(duì)你的印象,而且由于缺乏對(duì)后文內(nèi)容的暗示而使文章不能有效組織。我們知道寫PAPER的時(shí)候前面會(huì)出現(xiàn)KEY WORDS和ABSTRACT兩個(gè)部分,用以向讀者介紹本文的結(jié)構(gòu)和內(nèi)容。GRE AW當(dāng)然做不到這一點(diǎn),但是開頭卻能起到同樣的作用。有了對(duì)后文的暗示,讀者會(huì)在過程中更有效的follow your ideas, 同時(shí)這種寫法也強(qiáng)迫作者在文章開始之初就規(guī)劃好全文,避免了一邊想一邊寫搞得分論點(diǎn)混亂的問題。
還是看下范文:
題目
"It is unfortunate that today's educators place so much emphasis on finding out what students want to include in the curriculum and then giving it to them. It is the educator's duty to determine the curriculum and the students' duty to study what is presented to them."
As an elementary educator, I believe this stance is extremist. Educators and the public must come to a middle road. The high road and the low road are intimated in this statement. I believe the high road on this topic (from whence should curriculum come) represents a nouveau approach. Ask the students what they want to learn and study for the year; then meander, research and branch off of their interests. The low road on this topic (directly endorsed by this statement) is old fashioned and outdated. The assumptions behind this view include a magical ability by teachers to infuse reams of information, data and knowledge into students' brains that then become internalized and applied by the students.
這里作者的開頭有些長,不推薦,不過他很有效的把全文的觀點(diǎn)歸納為兩個(gè)方面,即一邊不好,另一邊也不好,從本質(zhì)上講這個(gè)開頭和上一篇范文的開頭很象,但提出了分論點(diǎn)并說明了理由,這樣后文再寫就能很好的照應(yīng)。當(dāng)然這個(gè)開頭確實(shí)有些沉冗了,建議大家寫的時(shí)候能再概括些,只是用一兩個(gè)關(guān)鍵詞表明自己分論點(diǎn)的出發(fā)點(diǎn)即可。
再來看篇5分范文:
題目:
"The best ideas arise from a passionate interest in commonplace things."
I can agree with the statement above that, "The best ideas arise from a passionate interest in commonplace things. " The statement is an accurate description of how many people form great ideas from ordinary things in life. Sports are all great ideas that are made from commonplace things. What makes sports some of the best ideas is not what they began as but what they evolved into.
非常眼熟的開頭呵呵,"I can agree with...抄題", 但之后作者用三句話把文章的大體意思介紹了下,說體育如何能證明這個(gè)觀點(diǎn),從而把一個(gè)很大的話題細(xì)化,方便了后文的展開。當(dāng)然這篇的出發(fā)點(diǎn)不太好,只局限于一個(gè)領(lǐng)域,在評(píng)論中也認(rèn)為這是此文無法拿到滿分的原因。
總之,簡單開頭的結(jié)構(gòu)比較單純,相應(yīng)的也比較好掌握,缺點(diǎn)也很明顯,可以通過增加信息量的方式來進(jìn)行彌補(bǔ),希望大家根據(jù)自己的情況取舍。
OK接下來討論我們更為常用,特別是寫作文經(jīng)過一定訓(xùn)練的老手比較喜歡的開頭,背景引出話題式開頭,或者叫復(fù)雜開頭。
通常學(xué)術(shù)論文都會(huì)在開篇就自己提出的論題介紹相關(guān)背景,從而引出自己的論題,這種開頭顯得有來源有知識(shí),而且在后文的論證中也可以用到背景,因此在時(shí)間允許的情況下進(jìn)行ISSUE寫作用這樣的開頭是個(gè)不錯(cuò)的選擇。但由于結(jié)構(gòu)相對(duì)比較復(fù)雜,有時(shí)候會(huì)出現(xiàn)介紹背景與文章無關(guān)、句子結(jié)構(gòu)散漫的問題,如何讓背景介紹發(fā)揮最大的作用就成了必須討論的問題。
背景介紹也分成幾種,比較常見的是社會(huì)背景介紹,即“With the development of society/technology/information”“Modern world is becoming so..."這種內(nèi)容比較泛而且比較好寫,一般遇到大部分題倒都能套上。但由于這個(gè)概念非常泛化,所以很容易就跟觀點(diǎn)脫節(jié),從而導(dǎo)致文章的開頭邏輯不明確,背景介紹成為廢話。
還是來看板油的習(xí)作(再次隨機(jī)抽取,感謝strokes7)
150"Because of television and worldwide computer connections, people can now become familiar with a great many places that they have never visited. As a result, tourism will soon become obsolete."
Evolving with the development of technology, television and computer on internet supply human beings more and more information of the great world, such as pictures and literal introductions of many places. Should the information on television and computer take place of tourism? I do not think so. Even our visions are broadened by the information, television and computer would not prevent people from traveling, but stimulate people to do so.
紅色為背景介紹,藍(lán)色為主題句。
第一句能不能聯(lián)系到第二句?可以,但并不直接。supply more information跟取代旅游有什么必然聯(lián)系么?紅字部分和藍(lán)字部分的轉(zhuǎn)折缺乏聯(lián)系,這期間缺掉了一個(gè)環(huán)節(jié),即問題的產(chǎn)生:由于電腦電視帶來的信息越來越多,很多地方不去都可以知道,于是乎,有的人認(rèn)為旅游過時(shí)了。然后再提問,水到渠成。
因此,背景式開頭很重要的一點(diǎn)就是提供的背景與提出的觀點(diǎn)光滑過度(smooth transition),存在必然邏輯聯(lián)系,這樣一來文章的開頭就會(huì)顯得比較有力度,而后文也可以有效利用介紹的背景來作為論證依據(jù)。在寫作背景式開頭的時(shí)候,考慮起始句如何引出觀點(diǎn),如何利用背景是關(guān)鍵,不要為了背景而寫背景。
下面介紹幾種其它的背景寫作模式,希望能幫大家開拓思路。
引用式。開頭引用名人名句,最俗的就是翟少成老罵的那個(gè)"a coin has two sides”,這種開頭難度很高,想用好也很難,在不知道題目的情況下誰也不能直接找出一句跟題目對(duì)應(yīng)很好能用于引出觀點(diǎn)句子,所以只適用于寫過的文章。如果撞大運(yùn)撞上了自己找過句子的題目,那么無疑用這種開頭會(huì)比較占便宜。
疑問式。這里說的疑問式不是把題目用問句寫一遍然后自答,而是提出一些與題目相關(guān)的問題引起思考,從而引出文章觀點(diǎn),從某種意義上說,是間接復(fù)述題目,然后將中間的邏輯點(diǎn)用敘述方式加以連接,從而引出主題。比如上面說到的Issue150,開頭說"Ever wanted to go somewhere far in universe? Ever complained about insufficience of money which keeps you from dream place? Now with the development of internet and television, such problems can be easily solved.“
敘事式。這種開頭在長文章新聞中非常常見,似乎也是老美比較喜歡的一種開頭,我看過的雜志里至少有一半文章是這么寫的。但由于敘事對(duì)篇幅要求比較多而且不易掌握,所以在ISSUE實(shí)戰(zhàn)中不是很常用。還是Issue150舉個(gè)例子。"I sit down in front of my PC, turn on internet and login in a cyber world. Myriad images appear, as if I have got into the opposite side of the earth. How convenient it is! So you may wonder, is tourism in need any more?" 有時(shí)間的同學(xué)不妨嘗試下。
無論什么形式的開頭,為論點(diǎn)提供支持是最重要的,這種背景可以是對(duì)反面觀點(diǎn)有利的,用于引出轉(zhuǎn)折,也可以是對(duì)正面觀點(diǎn)有利的,直接引出觀點(diǎn),或者是介紹題目背景,從而剖析題目的側(cè)重點(diǎn)。
看下官方范文對(duì)開頭背景的應(yīng)用:
題目
"The best ideas arise from a passionate interest in commonplace things."首先要說這是一個(gè)非常龐大的開頭,對(duì)于非瘋牛級(jí)人物不推薦。
盡管很長,但這段的內(nèi)容非常精練,每句話都是必不可少的,和其它內(nèi)容融為一體。具體見點(diǎn)評(píng)
Even the most brilliant thinkers, from Socrates to Satre, live lives in time.(用事實(shí)提出題目觀點(diǎn)的發(fā)展背景:牛人生活在時(shí)代中) A childhood, an adolescence, an adulthood; these are common to me and you as well as the greatest writers.(解釋事實(shí),進(jìn)一步連接題目“common") Furthermore, many of the great thinkers we esteem in our Western culture lived somewhat unevetful lives.(再深入,將事實(shí)泛化為普遍情況,從而提供大背景) What distinguished their life from say a common laborer was their work. Therefore, what provided the grist for their work?(間接提問引出觀點(diǎn):grist of work) One might say that they were brilliant and this alone was sufficient to distinguish their lives from the masses.(提出一種回答,他人觀點(diǎn),用以做完善的底子) Intellect alone can not devise situations or thoughts from no where; there must be a basis and that basis is most common, if not always, observation of the common, of the quotidian.(批駁他人觀點(diǎn)進(jìn)而進(jìn)行完善,引向自己的觀點(diǎn)basis) Critics of this idea may argue that these thinkers were products of fine educations and were well schooled in the classics. This, they may point to, is the real basis for their knowledge.(再提出一個(gè)他人觀點(diǎn),將話題進(jìn)一步引向自己觀點(diǎn)) I would agrue (主題句先行詞,闡明觀點(diǎn)) that although it may be a benefit to study classics and be well schooled in diverse disciplines, these pursuits merely refine and hone an ability each and every person has, the ability to study human nature. Where best to study human nature than in the day to day routine each one of us can witness in him or herself or those around us.
先不提NB的語言,但是這段的結(jié)構(gòu)就讓人嘆為觀止,背景-》問題-》兩個(gè)答案-》作者答案,層層遞進(jìn)連接緊密,一句廢話也沒有,所有的句子都有它的存在理由,在這里背景只是用于討論的話題,而觀點(diǎn)則自然成為了段落的重點(diǎn),從而使文章態(tài)度鮮明,而否定的兩個(gè)他人觀點(diǎn)一方面使過度平滑,另一方面也否認(rèn)了可能的反駁情況,從而令作者的觀點(diǎn)更好更強(qiáng)大。當(dāng)然這里略顯得沉冗,個(gè)人認(rèn)為一個(gè)他人觀點(diǎn)足以。
回到開篇的話,背景式寫作由于提供了更多樣的可能性,所以能夠令文章更具有個(gè)性,一個(gè)好的背景可以讓文章開頭就光彩十足,引出觀點(diǎn)也更為舒服,因此在選擇自己要討論的背景時(shí)也需要斟酌,即使是最俗的development of technology/society...也要用細(xì)節(jié)來使其與自己的論題對(duì)應(yīng),避免出現(xiàn)空泛的背景,這樣不但不能精確發(fā)揮作用,也不能突出個(gè)性。
GRE寫作論證的10個(gè)技巧
一、演繹推理論證法
將一個(gè)具體的事例運(yùn)用到一個(gè)一般性原則從而得出結(jié)論。
論點(diǎn):Demand for this product wii go up。
論據(jù):The price of the product is sliding.
推理依據(jù):Whenever prices of a product go down , demand for it rises.
(說明:由論據(jù)“the price of the product is sliding ”推出論點(diǎn)“Demand for this product will go up”,這個(gè)過程是否有效取決于推理依據(jù)“whenever prices of a product go down , demand for it rises”是否成立。下面每一種論證方法都是如此)
二、定義法
界定一個(gè)概念的關(guān)鍵內(nèi)涵;或者認(rèn)定某個(gè)事物符合某個(gè)定義,從而得出結(jié)論。例如:
論點(diǎn):Radical feminists are not good citizens.
論據(jù):Radical feminists lack family values.
推理依據(jù):Family values characterize the good citizes.
三、因果關(guān)系論證法
將一個(gè)判斷放入一個(gè)因果關(guān)系中,指出它或者是原因,或者是結(jié)果。例如:
論點(diǎn):The internet may be causing depression.
論據(jù):When a group of people increased their use of the Internet , they felt depressed.
推理依據(jù):There are no other reasons for the group's depression.
四、歸納推理論證法
從若干個(gè)具體事例中推出共性的一般結(jié)論。如:
論點(diǎn):Everyone likes the movie.
論據(jù):I know three people who like the movie.
推理依據(jù):Three eaxmples are enough.
五、列舉特征式論證法
指出某事物發(fā)生或者生存的征候或者跡象。例如:
論點(diǎn):The child has chickenpox.
論據(jù):The child has red spots.
推理依據(jù):These spots are signs of chickenpox.
六、類比論證法
用我們已知的、熟悉的事物同未知的。不熟悉的事物加以比較,并用前者的情況解釋者 的情況。分為三種:縱向類比(過去的事物同現(xiàn)在的、同一類事物的類比)、橫向類比(同一 時(shí)期、同一事物之間的類比)、比喻式類比(不同類別事物之間的類比)。例如:
1.縱向類比(Historical analogy)
論點(diǎn):Many people will die of SARS.
論據(jù):Many people died of the Black Death.
推理依據(jù):SARS and Black Death are similar.
2.橫向類比(Literal analogy)
論點(diǎn):China should have its fighter carriers.
論據(jù):A neighboring country has a powerful carrier fleet.
推理依據(jù):The two countries are similar enough to draw such a comparison.
3.比喻式類比(Metaphorical analogy)
論點(diǎn):Reading a difficult book should take time.
論據(jù):Digesting a large metal takes time.
推理依據(jù):Reading and eating are sufficiently alike to be compared.
七、引用權(quán)威論證法
引用公認(rèn)的權(quán)威,或者論證自己就是權(quán)威從而對(duì)自己的觀點(diǎn)加以論證。例如:
論點(diǎn):China's economy will grow 8 poercent this year.
論據(jù):Professors and scientists say so.
推理依據(jù):These experts are reliable.
八、訴諸嘗試法
利用人們的常識(shí)【包括:普遍的價(jià)值觀念、人的普遍動(dòng)機(jī)、生活常識(shí)】進(jìn)行論證。例如:
1.訴諸普遍性的價(jià)值觀念。
論點(diǎn):The university curriculum should be multicultural.
論據(jù):A multicultural curriculum will contribute to equality and acceptance.
推理依據(jù):You value equality and acceptance.
2.訴諸普遍動(dòng)機(jī)
論點(diǎn):You should support this candidate premier.
論據(jù):The candidate can help you get job security and safe neighbourhoods.
推理依據(jù):You want job security and safe neighbourhoods.
3.訴諸生活常識(shí)
論點(diǎn):She was very kind to me.
論據(jù):She treated me with the best tea she had.
推理依據(jù):A treatment with the best tea is an expression of kindness.
九、反證法
假設(shè)一個(gè)觀點(diǎn)是正確的,然后卻推導(dǎo)出荒謬的結(jié)論。例如:
論點(diǎn):An industrious man must also be thrifty.
論據(jù):With only industry but without thrift ,the person will end uo bankrupt.
推理依據(jù):An industrious person ending up bankrupt sounds absurd.
十、統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)論證法
提供數(shù)據(jù),以資論證。例如:
論點(diǎn):We should end the current poverty-relief program.
論據(jù):It costs million per year.
推理依據(jù):This is too much;it proves we should end it.
只是一個(gè)詳細(xì)的結(jié)構(gòu)上的分析說明,在具體運(yùn)用時(shí),我們經(jīng)常講推理依據(jù)和論據(jù)放在了一起,但只要合理即可。論據(jù)可以自己編造,也可以是大眾的例子,關(guān)鍵在于自己怎么樣建立論點(diǎn)和論據(jù)之間的橋梁。上面的這些技巧,可能我們只用到某種或某幾種,但我們必須得會(huì)至少一種。
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