托福閱讀-事實(shí)信息題中的因果邏輯題
事實(shí)信息題是托福閱讀中考查比重最大的題型之一。毫不夸張地說(shuō)，對(duì)于任何一個(gè)分?jǐn)?shù)段的學(xué)生來(lái)說(shuō)，事實(shí)信息題的完成情況，就決定了閱讀的得分情況。下面小編給大家?guī)?lái)托福閱讀-事實(shí)信息題中的因果邏輯題 。
托福閱讀-事實(shí)信息題中的因果邏輯題
筆者結(jié)合自己的教學(xué)經(jīng)驗(yàn)先來(lái)說(shuō)一下學(xué)生在做事實(shí)信息題過(guò)程中出現(xiàn)過(guò)一些“狀態(tài)”：
1. 做題時(shí)間長(zhǎng)。中國(guó)的考生遇到了事實(shí)信息題，不喜歡定位，而是喜歡習(xí)慣性的把相應(yīng)的段落的從頭至尾地讀一次。閱讀的信息較多，閱讀時(shí)間長(zhǎng)。而一場(chǎng)閱讀托福考試的閱讀量對(duì)于那些原本閱讀速度就慢的學(xué)生來(lái)說(shuō)，用這種思路做題，很有可能是做不完的。
如例1：OG: Applied Arts and Fine Arts
…Sculptures must, for example, be stable,which requires an understanding of the properties of mass ,weight distribution , and stress .Paintings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. These are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. For example, in the early Italian Renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. This was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg. In other words, the demands of the laws of physics,not the sculptor’s aesthetic intentions, placed the ball there. That this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces(iron being much stronger than bronze) …
According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because
A. they began using a material that made the statues weigh less
B. they found a way to strengthen the statues internally
C. the aesthetic tastes of the public had changed over time
D. the cannonballs added too much weight to the statues
在做這題時(shí)，學(xué)生要么從段首讀到段尾，要么就從“For example, in the early Italian Renaissance”讀到最后，事實(shí)上這樣都讀到了過(guò)多的信息，做題時(shí)間過(guò)長(zhǎng)。
2. 被無(wú)關(guān)信息干擾。在筆者的教學(xué)經(jīng)驗(yàn)中發(fā)現(xiàn)，中國(guó)考生在做題過(guò)程中，最容易沖動(dòng)地選擇一些含有原文中出現(xiàn)過(guò)的信息的選項(xiàng)，而這些選項(xiàng)往往跟題目并沒(méi)有任何的關(guān)聯(lián)性。根本原因就是考生喜歡不習(xí)慣定位，喜歡通讀全段。這樣一來(lái)，浪費(fèi)時(shí)間是一方面，另外一方面，選錯(cuò)的可能性又增大了。
如例2：OG Online Exam: Lascaux Cave Paintings Q11
Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images, but their mystique only adds to their importance. Certainly a great art exists, and by its existence reveals that ancient human beings were not without intelligence, skill, and sensitivity.
According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
A. Keeping the paintings a mystery will increase their importance.
B. The artists hid their tools with great intelligence and skill.
C. Too many years have gone by since the images were painted.
D. Answering the question is not very important to scholars.
在做這個(gè)題目中，不少同學(xué)看到這一段非常短，于是索性從頭讀到尾，在各種糾結(jié)中選了各種選項(xiàng)。
3. 邏輯混亂，或忽視了邏輯關(guān)系。當(dāng)然在托福閱讀的教學(xué)過(guò)程上中，經(jīng)過(guò)一定的引導(dǎo)，學(xué)生還是慢慢地學(xué)會(huì)去定位。盡可能地做到“提速與減負(fù)”，但是在這個(gè)過(guò)程中，學(xué)生們還是會(huì)做錯(cuò)。原因則在于，在題目中出現(xiàn)了一些邏輯關(guān)系，而學(xué)生則往往邏輯混亂，甚至是忽視了這些邏輯關(guān)系。如果利用好了這些邏輯關(guān)系，則能幫助學(xué)生更快的定位，更準(zhǔn)確地找到答案。
再如例3：OG Practice Set 6: Swimming Machines: Q6
Paragraph 6: Because they are always swimming,tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills. Accordingly,they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills. In fact, tunas must swim to breathe.They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant.
6. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion?
A. They lack a swim bladder.
B. They need to suck in more water than other fishes do.
C. They have large muscles for breathing.
D. They cannot open their mouths unless they are in motion.
這個(gè)題目就會(huì)因?yàn)檫壿嫽靵y的問(wèn)題，不少學(xué)生選擇D。
其實(shí)只要學(xué)生觀察這個(gè)題目的提問(wèn)方式，我們還是能看出一些“門(mén)道”的：
1. According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because
2. According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
3. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion?
仔細(xì)閱讀這3 個(gè)事實(shí)信息題在提問(wèn)方式方面的同性，不難發(fā)現(xiàn)，它們都在問(wèn)because, why, 以及one of the reasons 等“原因”。那么，在教學(xué)過(guò)程中，我會(huì)把這一類(lèi)專(zhuān)門(mén)問(wèn)因果邏輯的事實(shí)題單獨(dú)分出來(lái)，進(jìn)行講解。引導(dǎo)學(xué)生注意，題目在問(wèn)“原因”，也就是答案必須是原因。有“原因”就會(huì)導(dǎo)致一個(gè)“結(jié)果”?！敖Y(jié)果”就是題目。這樣一來(lái)，學(xué)生就不難發(fā)現(xiàn)這樣一個(gè)公式：“原因(答案)+ 結(jié)果(題目) = 原文某一因果邏輯關(guān)系的句群” 學(xué)生只要能利用“結(jié)果(題目)”回到文章中去定位，在定位詞的附近找表示“原因”的邏輯關(guān)系詞，也就能更快，更準(zhǔn)地找到答案了。
當(dāng)然課程進(jìn)行到這里，我會(huì)加入一些學(xué)生活動(dòng)，讓學(xué)生先熟悉，或是回憶一些表“原因”的邏輯詞，如：because/because of, result from, owing to/ due to,as a result of, since, for, attribute to, thanks to, so…that…等。再結(jié)合學(xué)生的基礎(chǔ)補(bǔ)充一些隱性的因果邏輯詞，如：when, if, unless…
回頭來(lái)看一下之前的3 個(gè)題目
例1：OG: Applied Arts and Fine Arts
…Sculptures must, for example, be stable,which requires an understanding of the properties of mass ,weight distribution , and stress .Paintings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. These are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. For example, in the early Italian Renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. This was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg. In other words, the demands of the laws of physics,not the sculptor’s aesthetic intentions, placed the ball there. That this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze) …
According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because
A. they began using a material that made the statues weigh less
B. they found a way to strengthen the statues internally
C. the aesthetic tastes of the public had changed over time
D. the cannonballs added too much weight to the statues
利用“ sculptors … stopped using cannonballs…” 定位到“the cannonball quickly disappeared”這一句話(huà)，在這個(gè)關(guān)鍵詞的附近找到了“when” 這個(gè)表“原因”的隱性邏輯詞，只要仔細(xì)閱讀when 后面的信息“when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze)”便能快速確定答案為B，而不是在閱讀了整段后，浪費(fèi)了大量的時(shí)間后，還在思考，到底是B還是似乎原文中也提到的D?
例2：OG Online Exam: Lascaux Cave PaintingsQ11
Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images, but their mystique only adds to their importance. Certainly a great art exists, and by its existence reveals that ancient human beings were not without intelligence, skill, and sensitivity.
According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
A. Keeping the paintings a mystery will increase their importance.
B. The artists hid their tools with great intelligence and skill.
C. Too many years have gone by since the images were painted.
D. Answering the question is not very important to scholars.
例2 中， 學(xué)生利用“questions about the paintings never be answered” 定位到“there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images”， 在附近找表“ 原因” 的邏輯詞：“so… that…”，“so…”后面接原因，從而得出答案應(yīng)該選擇與原文“so much time has passed”意思一致，與時(shí)間相關(guān)的C 選項(xiàng)。而定位詞后出現(xiàn)的邏輯“but”引導(dǎo)的信息點(diǎn)，也就是類(lèi)似于A選項(xiàng)的信息也因?yàn)檫壿嫴粚?duì)而被排除。
例3：OG Practice Set 6: Swimming Machines:Q6
Paragraph 6 : Because the yare always swimming, tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills. Accordingly, they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills. In fact, tunas must swim to breathe. They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant.
6. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion?
A. They lack a swim bladder.
B. They need to suck in more water than other fishes do.
C. They have large muscles for breathing.
D. They cannot open their mouths unless they are in motion.
最后， 例3 中， 用“constant motion” 學(xué)生往往會(huì)定位到2 處位置，第一處：“Because they are always swimming, tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills.” 第二處：“They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant.”題目問(wèn)的是：“導(dǎo)致金槍魚(yú)constant motion 的原因是什么”, 所以重點(diǎn)看表示原因，也就是“since”后面的信息，就能得出A，而原文中第一句話(huà)則是說(shuō)，always swimming (constant motion) 導(dǎo)致了一個(gè)結(jié)果：“金槍魚(yú)打開(kāi)他們的嘴巴”，也就是讓學(xué)生糾結(jié)的D 選項(xiàng)犯了邏輯上的錯(cuò)誤，即使這個(gè)選項(xiàng)中包含了原文中的信息，應(yīng)該果斷被排除。
以上便是我的教學(xué)過(guò)程中，在講解事實(shí)信息題過(guò)程中，用到一些思路與方法。
托福閱讀之把握句間的因果關(guān)系詳解
托福想要拿高分除了積累大量詞匯和理解長(zhǎng)難句之外， 把握句間關(guān)系也是非要重要的。
閱讀部分考生需要掌握的四大結(jié)構(gòu)，他們分別是：
? classification
? comparison/contrast
? cause/effect
? problem/solution
以最后一個(gè)“問(wèn)題/解決方法”為例來(lái)感受下官方指南上的要求是如何體現(xiàn)在托?？荚嚨木毩?xí)題中的。
官方放出的練習(xí)題中有一篇講到“羅馬軍隊(duì)對(duì)不列顛的影響”。其倒數(shù)第二題為一道句子插入題。被插入句是這樣的:“One solution was to keep them busy as sources of labor.”這句話(huà)的開(kāi)頭“solution”一詞暗示著前文定會(huì)提到需要解決的”problem ”，而這一線(xiàn)索也成為答對(duì)這道題的關(guān)鍵。這類(lèi)題目背后的考點(diǎn)本質(zhì)上就是對(duì)句間關(guān)系的把握。正所謂題型在變，關(guān)系不變。
所以，本文以官方指南為基礎(chǔ)，結(jié)合真實(shí)考試要求，重點(diǎn)分析閱讀考試中三大句間關(guān)系，希望對(duì)正在備考中的學(xué)子們有所啟發(fā)。
句間關(guān)系1——因果關(guān)系
(涉及的托福閱讀題型有：細(xì)節(jié)題/修辭目的題/推理題/句子插入題)
因果關(guān)系在整個(gè)托福閱讀中的出鏡頻率非常高;曾有一個(gè)統(tǒng)計(jì)，在托福給出的官方練習(xí)題中，細(xì)節(jié)題中考察到因果關(guān)系的比例高達(dá)三分之一。所以，無(wú)論是從考試的角度，還是提高閱讀力本身，掌握因果關(guān)系在句子之間的體現(xiàn)都是非常重要的。
以很多學(xué)生們非常熟悉的一篇文章“The origin of theaters”為例。有一道細(xì)節(jié)題問(wèn)到考生為什么人們會(huì)逐漸放棄當(dāng)時(shí)的“rituals”;在定位詞出現(xiàn)的句子中，我們會(huì)非常容易看到句子開(kāi)頭有一個(gè)短語(yǔ)叫做“as a result ”;根據(jù)題目要求，答案的出處應(yīng)該就在前一句話(huà)中。而只要能夠認(rèn)識(shí)“detached“這個(gè)單詞，考生還是能比較順利地選出正確答案。
類(lèi)似于“as a result ”這樣具有因果關(guān)系提示的詞組還有很多，寫(xiě)作的時(shí)候也能派上用場(chǎng)，所以提醒各位考生一定要踏實(shí)地做好積累。比如“attribute X to Y”這個(gè)短語(yǔ)在官方練習(xí)題中就出現(xiàn)過(guò)三次，并且都是決定考生是否能讀懂文章的必備詞匯。
托福閱讀能力如何全面提高
一、問(wèn)題形式
被考的文章中有一個(gè)詞或詞組被加亮，這個(gè)詞通常是一個(gè)代詞或名詞。指代題的形式如下：
The word (or phrase) X in the passage refers to
二、解題步驟
1.根據(jù)解題技巧確定答案
2.代入原文驗(yàn)證，看語(yǔ)義、邏輯和語(yǔ)法上是否通順
三、基本原則
1.就近指代
所謂就近指代，就是被指代對(duì)象通常在指代詞前不遠(yuǎn)處，如本句或上一句中。有時(shí)也出現(xiàn)在更前面的一句中。例如，
Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. The killing of birds of prey by wind turbines has pitted environmentalists who champion wildlife protection against environmentalists who promote renewable wind energy. Researchers are evaluating how serious this problem is and hope to find ways to eliminate or sharply reduce this problem.
The phrase this problem in the passage refers to
interference with the flight patterns of migrating birds in certain areas
building ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines
the killing of birds of prey by wind turbines
meeting the demands of environmentalists who promote renewable wind energy
本題涉及的是一個(gè)詞組this problem.尋找這一詞組的指代對(duì)象時(shí)只需向上搜索就行。根據(jù)就近原則，前一句中的主語(yǔ)the killing of birds of prey by wind turbines可以初步確定為答案。將其代入原文，符合語(yǔ)義和邏輯，因此第三個(gè)選項(xiàng)為正確答案。第一個(gè)選項(xiàng)和第三個(gè)選項(xiàng)都和this problem相距較遠(yuǎn)，而且代入時(shí)語(yǔ)義和邏輯上不通，因此為干擾選項(xiàng)。
2.數(shù)格一致
被指代對(duì)象通常與指代詞在數(shù)(如單數(shù)或復(fù)數(shù))和格(主格或賓格)兩方面相同。如單數(shù)代詞one指代單數(shù)名詞，復(fù)數(shù)代詞they指代復(fù)數(shù)名詞。
四、主要思路
1.主從復(fù)合句中的指代
在主從復(fù)合句中，第二句的代詞主語(yǔ)經(jīng)常指代第一句的名詞主語(yǔ)。例如，
The fins are stiff, smooth, and narrow, qualities that also help cut drag. When not in use, the fins are tucked into special grooves or depressions so that they lie flush with the body and do not break up its smooth contours.
The word they in the passage refers to
qualities
fins
grooves
depressions
在這一例子中，從句so that they…中的代詞主語(yǔ)they指代主句的名詞主語(yǔ)the fins，因此第二個(gè)選項(xiàng)為正確答案。
如果主從復(fù)合句中一個(gè)句子(可以是主句，也可以是從句)使用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)，包含被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)的句子中的主語(yǔ)常指代另一句中的賓語(yǔ)。例如，
Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction.
The word none in the passage refers to
food
plant or animal
energy
big body
在本例中，if引導(dǎo)的從句使用了被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)，代詞主語(yǔ)none指代前面主句中的賓語(yǔ)energy.因此，第三個(gè)選項(xiàng)為正確答案。
2.并列動(dòng)詞中的指代
如果一個(gè)句中有兩個(gè)并列的動(dòng)詞，第二個(gè)動(dòng)詞的代詞賓語(yǔ)經(jīng)常指代前一個(gè)動(dòng)詞后的名詞賓語(yǔ)。例如，
Artists are recognizing the distinction between public and private spaces, and taking that into account when executing their public commissions.
The word “that” in line 27 refers to
(A)contemporary art
(B)opportunity
(C)audience
(D)distinction
句中有兩個(gè)并列的動(dòng)詞recognizing和 taking (into account)，其中recognizing的賓語(yǔ)是distinction，而taking 的賓語(yǔ)是that.根據(jù)上述技巧，that指代distinction.因此，(D)為正確答案。
3.平行結(jié)構(gòu)中的指代
平行結(jié)構(gòu)主要包括some/most/many/such/each…, others…; not only…but also…; the former…the latter等。在這種結(jié)構(gòu)中，平行結(jié)構(gòu)兩個(gè)部分的兩個(gè)代詞經(jīng)常指代同一對(duì)象：前一句中的名詞主語(yǔ)。例如，
In Southwest France in the 1940s, playing children discovered Lascaux Grotto, a series of narrow cave chambers that contain huge prehistoric paintings of animals. Many of these beasts are as large as 16 feet (almost 5 meters). Some follow each other in solemn parades, but others swirl about, sideways and upside down.
The word others in the passage refers to
chambers
paintings
beasts
parades
原文包含平行結(jié)構(gòu)some…others，它們都指代前一句中的名詞主語(yǔ)beasts，因此第三個(gè)選項(xiàng)為正確答案。
4.所有格的指代
所有格代詞經(jīng)常指代其前面與其最接近的名詞。例如，
Folk-made objects give way to their popular equivalent, usually because the popular item is more quickly or cheaply produced, is easier or time saving to use, or lends more prestige to the owner.
The word “their” in line 1 refers to
(A)folk
(B)nations
(C)countries
(D)objects
根據(jù)所有格指代的解題技巧，their指代前面位置最近的名詞objects，因此(D)為正確答案。
5.指代的接力棒現(xiàn)象
這一現(xiàn)象是指被考的代詞對(duì)應(yīng)前面一個(gè)相同的代詞，而前面的代詞指代更前一句中的名詞。例如，
While such interviews can be highly entertaining, they are not necessarily an accurate indication of public opinion. First, they reflect the opinions of only those people who appear at a certain location.
The word “they” in line 8 refers to
(A)North Americans
(B)news shows
(C)interviews
(D)opinions
在這一例子中，第二句中的代詞they(reflect the opinions…)對(duì)應(yīng)第一句中的they(are not…)，而第一個(gè)they指代前面從句中的名詞主語(yǔ)interviews，那么第二個(gè)they也指代interviews，因此(C)為正確答案。
除了上述情況之外，其他指代，如定語(yǔ)從句中(of which…, in which…, from which…)的關(guān)系代詞指代先行詞，from there結(jié)構(gòu)中的there指代前面最接近的地點(diǎn)名詞等，限于篇幅，不再詳述。
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