大學(xué)生英語畢業(yè)論文

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　　大學(xué)生英語畢業(yè)論文篇1

　　淺談非語言交際中的身勢語

　　摘要

　　“身勢語”同語言一樣，都是文化的一部分。在不同文化中，身勢語的意義并不完全相同。各民族有不同的非語言交際方式.例如：不同的民族在談話時(shí)，對(duì)雙方保持多大距離才合適有不同的看法;談話雙方身體接觸的次數(shù)多少因文化不同而各異;在目光接觸這一方面也有許多規(guī)定：看不看對(duì)方，什么時(shí)候看，看多久，什么人可以看，什么人不可以看;在某些場合下，在中國和講英語的國家無論微笑還是大笑，通常表示友好﹑贊同﹑滿意﹑高興﹑愉快，但是在某些場合，中國人的笑會(huì)引起西方人的反感;打手勢時(shí)動(dòng)作稍有不同，就會(huì)與原來的意圖有所區(qū)別，對(duì)某種手勢理解錯(cuò)了，也會(huì)引起意外的反應(yīng)等等。因此，要用外語進(jìn)行有效的交際，在說某種語言時(shí)就得了解說話人的手勢，動(dòng)作，舉止等所表示的意思。而有些權(quán)威人士認(rèn)為兩者相互依存。在大多數(shù)情況下這是對(duì)的。在某些情況下，人體動(dòng)作與所說的話不一致，口頭說的與身勢語表達(dá)的意思不一樣。這時(shí)要借助其他信息或從整個(gè)情況中猜測說話人的意思，從某種意義上說，一切身勢語都要放在一定的情景下去理解;忽視了整個(gè)情景就會(huì)發(fā)生誤解。而通過中美身勢語對(duì)比研究表明，兩者有相似的地方，也有差異的地方，說明了解另一種語言中身勢語的重要性?？梢?，真正掌握兩種語言的人在換用另一種語言說話時(shí)也要換用另一種身勢語。這樣才能達(dá)到更好的交際效果。

　　關(guān)鍵詞: 非語言交際 身勢語 不同文化 不同方式

　　Body Language on Nonverbal Communication

　　Abstract

　　“Body language”, like our verbal language, is also a part of our culture. But not all body language means the same thing in different cultures. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. For example: different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing; the appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures; one could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at; smiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment, and, this is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries, however, there are situations when some Chinese will laugh that will cause negative reactions by westerners; gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended, and, a wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions and so on. So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should know also the gestures, body movements, mannerisms and etc. that accompany a particular language. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situations body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what body language communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a sense, all body language should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading. A comparative study of Chinese and American body language shows a number of similarities and diversities of body language. It shows the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with a language. Observation shows that a truly bilingual person switches his body language at the same time he switches languages. This makes communication easier and better.

　　Key words: nonverbal communication body language different culture different ways

　　1. Introduction

　　When a Chinese converses with a Canadian or American friend of the opposite sex, would it be indecent to be looking at the other person?

　　If two young friends of the same sex walk with their arms around each other’s shoulders or hold hands, would this be regarded by English-speaking people as proper?

　　Does nodding the head mean “yes”, and shaking the head mean “no” in all cultures?

　　There are not questions about language, but about body language, about nonverbal communication.

　　Nonverbal communication, composed of pictures, dresses, eye contact, spatial signals, gestures and so on, is as important as verbal communication.

　　People communicate in many different ways. One of the most important ways, of course, is through language. Moreover, when language is written it can be completely isolated from the context in which it occurs; it can be treated as if it were an independent and self-contained process.

　　Like all animals, people communicate by their actions as well as by the noises they make. It is a sort of biological anomaly of man—something like the giraffe’s neck, or the pelican’s beak—that our vocal noises have so for outgrown in importance and frequency all our other methods of signaling to one another. Language is obviously essential for human beings, but it is not the whole story of human communication. Not by a long shot.

　　The study of nonverbal communication should be complementary to the study of language. The understanding of one should be helpful in the further understanding of the other. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situation body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what nonverbal communication communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a case, all nonverbal communication should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading.

　　2. The necessity and importance of learning body language on nonverbal communication

　　Although we may not realize it, when we converse with others we communicate by much more than words. By our expressions, gestures and other body movements we send messages to these around us a smile and an outstretched hand show welcome. A form is a sign of displeasure. Nodding one’s head means agreement—“Yes”. Waving an outstretched hand with open palm is the gesture for “goodbye”. Leaning back in one’s seat and yawning at a talk or lecture shows lack of interest, boredom. These gestures have come to be accepted in general as having the meanings mentioned, at last to Chinese and Americans. There are parts of the way in which we communicate. This “body language”, like our verbal language, is also a part of our culture.

　　But not all body language means the same thing in different cultures. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. The answers to the questions at the beginning of this chapter are all “no”. Even nodding the head may have a different meaning. To Nepalese, Sri Lankans, some Indians and some Eskimos it means not “yes”, but “no”. So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should know also the gestures, body movements, mannerisms and etc. that accompany a particular language.

　　Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research—Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn t have grown into a normal person". It s also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students characters.

　　3. The concrete types and application of the body language

　　3.1 Types of body language

　　3.1.1 Distance between people conversing

　　Watch an Arab and an Englishman in conversation. The Arab, showing friendliness in the manner of his people, will stand close to the Englishman. The latter will move back, watching to the Englishman. The Arab will then move forward to be closer; the Englishman will keep moving backward. By the end of the conversation, the two may be quite a distance from the conversation; the two may be quite a distance from the place where they were originally standing!

　　Here, distance between the two is the key factor. Different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing. According to studies, it seems there are four main distances in American social and business relations: intimate, personal, social, and public. Intimate distance ranges from direct physical contact to a distance of about 45 centimeters; this is for people’s most private relations and activities, between man and wife, for example. Personal distance is about 45—80 centimeters and is most common when friends, acquaintances and relatives converse. Social distance may be anywhere from about 1.30 meters to 3 meters; people who work together, or people doing business, as well as most of those in conversation at social gatherings tend to keep a distance is farther than any of the above and is generally for speakers in public and for teachers in classrooms.

　　The important thing to keep in mind is that most English-speaking people do not like people to be too close. Being too far apart, of course, may be awkward, but being too close makes people uncomfortable, unless there is a reason, such as showing affection or encouraging intimacy. But that is another matter.

　　3.1.2 Physical contact

　　The appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures. Figures from a study offer interesting insight into this matter. Pairs of individuals sitting and chatting in college shops in different places were observed for at last one hour each. The number of times that either one touched the other in that one hour was recorded, as follows: London, 0; Gainesville, Florida, 2; Pairs, 10; San Juan, Puerto Rico, 180. These figures speak for themselves. (Robinett, 1978)

　　In English-speaking countries, physical contact is generally avoided in conversation among ordinary friends or acquaintances. Merely touching someone may cause an unpleasant reaction. If one touches another person accidentally, he/she usually utters an apology such as “Sorry, Oh, I’m sorry, Excuse me.”

　　In China, a common complaint of western mothers is that Chinese often fondle their babies and very small children. Such behavior—whether touching, patting, hugging or kissing—can be quite embarrassing and awkward for the mothers. They know that no harm is meant, and that such gestures are merely signs of friendliness or affection, therefore they cannot openly show their displeasure. On the other hand, such actions in their own culture would be considered rude, intrusive and offensive and could arouse a strong dislike and even repugnance. So the mothers often stand by and watch in awkward silence, with mixed emotions, even when the fondling is by Chinese friends or acquaintances.

　　Going beyond the milder forms of touching, we shall take up the matter of hugging and embracing in public. This practice is fairly common among women in many countries. And in most of the more industrialized countries, it occurs frequently between husband and wife and close members of the family when meeting after a period of absence. Hugging and embracing among men, however, is a different matter. Among Arabs, Russians, French, and in several of the east European and Mediterranean countries, a warm hug and a kiss on the cheeks are a standard way of welcome. The same is true with some Latin Americans. In East Asia and in the English-speaking countries, though, the practice is seldom seen. A simple handshake is the custom. The story is told of what happened not long ago when the Japanese prime minister at the time, Mr. Fukuda, went to the U.S. on a state visit. When he stepped out of his car in front of the white house, he was greeted by the American president whit a “bear hug”. The prime minister was flabbergasted; others of the Japanese delegation were amazed; many Americans were surprised—it was so unusual and so unexpected. If the president had bowed low in Japanese fashion, it would have been less a surprise than to be greeted in a way so uncommon in either country!

　　The matter of physical contact between members of the same sex in English-speaking countries is a delicate one. Once past childhood, the holding of hands, or walking with an arm around another’s shoulder is not considered proper. The implication is homosexuality, and homosexuality generally arouses strong social disapproval in these countries.

　　3.1.3 Eye contact

　　Eye contact is an important aspect of body language. One could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at. These passages from the book Body Language (Fast, 1971) are amusing as well as informative:

　　“Tow strangers seated across from each other in a railway dining car have the option of introducing themselves and facing a meal of inconsequential and perhaps boring talk, or ignoring each other and desperately trying to avoid each other’s glance. A writer, describing such a situation in an essay, wrote, ‘they re-read the menu, they fool with the cutlery, they inspect their own fingernails as if seeing them for the first time. Comes the inevitable moment when glances meet, but they meet only to shoot instantly away and out the window for an intent view of the passing scene.’ ”

　　He points out that with people who are unfamiliar:

　　“We must void staring at them, and yet we must also avoid ignoring them… We look at them long enough to make it quite clear that we see them, and then we immediately look away.

　　There are different formulas for the exchange of glances depending on where the meeting takes place. If you pass someone in the street you may eye the oncoming person till you are about eight feet apart, then you must look away as you pass. Before the eight-foot distance is reached, each will signal in which direction he will pass. This is done with a brief look in that direction. Each will veer slightly, and the passing is done smoothly.”

　　In conversations with people who know each other, however, American custom demands that there should be eye contact. This applies to both the speaker and the listener. For either one not to look at the other person could imply a number of things, among which are fear, contempt, uneasiness, guilt, indifference, even in public speaking there should be plenty of eye contact. For a speaker to “burry his nose in his manuscript”, to read a speech instead of looking at and talking to hid audience, as some Chinese speakers are in the habit of doing, would be regarded as inconsiderate and disrespectful.

　　In conversation, a person shows that he is listening by looking at the other person’s eyes or face. If the other person is speaking at some length, the listener will occasionally make sounds like “Hmm”, “Ummm”, or nod his head to indicate his attention. If he agrees with the speaker, he may nod or smile. If he disagrees or has some reservations, he may slant his head to one side, raise an eyebrow, have a quizzical look.

　　Staring at people or holding a glance too long is considered improper in English-speaking countries. Even when the look may be one of appreciation—as of beauty—it may make people uneasy and embarrassed. Many Americans traveling abroad find the stares of the local people irritating. They become extremely self-conscious and often end up quite indignant about the “rudeness” of the people there, not realizing that the practice may be quite common in the country and may be nothing more than curiosity. Many English-speaking people in china have heard to complain about this.

　　“The language of the eyes”—one of the most common and ancient ways of exchanging feelings between boys and girls, men and women—is especially elaborate in the United States. Much study has been made of this: how people of the opposite sex show interest or indifference, encouragement or discouragement, approval or disapproval, affection or aversion. However, there are many differences even within the United States. Men use their eyes in different ways than women; there are differences of age, class or social status and geographical region; there are differences of ethnic background.

　　The story is told of a teenage Puerto Rican girl in a New York high school who was taken with a number of other girls to the principal for suspected smoking. Although there was no proof of any wrongdoing and although she had a good record, the principal decided she was guilty and suspended her. “There was something sly and suspicious about her,” he said in his report. “She just wouldn’t meet my eye. She wouldn’t look at me.”

　　When she was questioned by the principal it was true that she kept staring at the floor and refused to meet his eye. And in English there is a saying “Don’t trust anyone who won’t look at you in the eye.”

　　It so happened that one of the teachers had a Latin American background and knew about Puerto Rican culture. After talking with the girl’s parents, he went to the principal and explained that according to Puerto Rican culture, a good girl “does not meet the eyes of an adult.” Such behavior, he explained, “is a sign of respect and obedience.”

　　Fortunately, the principal accepted the explanation, admitted his mistake and the matter was settled properly. This difference in interpreting a simple eye gesture was a lesson in cultural diversity that he would not easily forget.

　　Rules about eye-language are numerous and complex. What has been mentioned gives a good idea of this; we shall not go further into detail.

　　3.1.4 Smiles and laughter

　　Smiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment. This is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries. However, there are situations when some Chinese will laugh that will cause negative reactions by westerners. To illustrate, here is an excerpt from a letter by an American to a Chinese friend on nonverbal gestures that often cause cross-cultural misunderstanding:

　　“…One is the different meaning of laughter in China and American. When an American is parking his bicycle, for example, and the bicycle accidentally falls over, he feels embarrassed at his awkwardness, and is quite angered and humiliated when Chinese onlookers laugh. I have seen the same thing happen in the dining room, when a foreigner drops a plate quite by accident and feels badly and Chinese onlookers laugh, compounding his discomfort and causing anger and bad feeling.”

　　Such laughter, of course, is not at the person or his misfortune—whether he be a foreigner or a Chinese. It can convey a number of feelings: don’t take it so seriously; laugh it off, it’s nothing; such things can happen to any of us, etc. However, for people unaware of this attitude, the reaction to such laughter is usually quite unpleasant and often generates ill feeling towards those laughing.

　　3.1.5 Gestures

　　Gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended. A wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions.

　　A well-known case is a gesture made by Winston Churchill, the doughty prime minister who led Britain through the Second World War. As he appeared before a large crowd, he was greeted with cheers and applause. The occasion was a momentous one and Churchill flashed the “V for victory” sign—with the forefinger and middle finger raised to form a “V”. Whether by mistake or ignorance, instead of facing the palm of his hand to the front, he made the “V” with the back of his hand towards the audience. Some in the crowd applauded; some gasped; some broke out in laughter. The prime minister’s gesture, as given, meant quite something else. Instead of “V for victory”, it meant something dirty; it was an obscene gesture!

　　3.2 Application of the body language

　　3.2.1 Greetings

　　Hoa has just arrived from Vietnam. Her cousin Phuong and some of his American friends are waiting at the airport to greet her. Hoa and Phuong are both excited about this meeting because they have been separated for seven years. As soon as Hoa enters the passenger terminal, Phuong introduces her to his friends Tom, Don, and Charles. Tom steps forward and hugs and kisses Hoa. She pushes him away and bursts into tears.

　　Among Chinese from Vietnam, if a boy hugs and kisses a girl in public, he insults her. Chinese culture in Vietnam is very strict about this, especially in the rural areas where Hoa grew up. She described her village: “After children are ten years old, boys and girls cannot play together. A boy and girl cannot date without their parents’ approval. A man and woman cannot hug or kiss if they’re not married.”

　　In Hoa’s village if anyone violated these rules, the villagers punished the girl by forcing her to kneel on the ground so they could spit at her and throw rocks at her. No wonder that Puong’s American friends frightened Hoa. She did not know what punishment for public hugging and kissing might be meted out to her in this country. She confused Tom, who by American standards was dong the right thing.

　　Eventually Hoa learned to be comfortable when greeted with hugs and kisses, accepting them as merely perfunctory acts.

　　Analogous to this situation is another in which Duane, a Chinese American employee, invited his non-Chinese boss, Mr. Keck, to a large family celebration. When Mr. Keck arrived, he shook hands with Duane and, when introduced to Duane’s grandmother, leaned over and kissed her on the cheek. This shocked the older woman, yet Mr. Keck was totally unaware that he had committed a social blunder. What he considered as a respectful act, grandmother considered disrespectful. Instead, Mr. Keck should have nodded to the older woman and offered her a verbal greeting.

　　◆ When establishing relations with Asians, avoid body contact. The safest form is to nod and give a verbal salutation. Follow their lead as the relationship changes.

　　Like customs everywhere, increased cross-cultural interaction brings about changes in habits; many Asian businesspeople have accommodated to the American handshaking tradition. On the other hand, in a situation where it seems as if bowing would still be the only polite move to make—especially to the Japanese—following these guidelines should make it easier.

　　◆ When bowing to people from Japan, hands should slide down toward the knees or remain at the side.

　　◆ Back and neck should be held in a rigid position, while eyes look downward.

　　◆ The person in the inferior position always bows longer and lower.

　　Those from India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh use the namaste for both greeting and farewells and as a sign of respect. They do this by holding their hands chest-high in a prayerlike position, then slightly nod the head; but they do not bow. American students of yoga who are taught by Asian teachers become familiar with this gesture that heralds the beginning of each session. Thais have a similar greeting, but they call it a wai.

　　While body contact is generally taboo in most Asian countries, elsewhere, body contact is expected; shying away from contact gives off negative signals.

　　◆ When greeting, people from Indian, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Thailand hold their hands together in front of their chins in a prayerlike position and nod their heads.

　　◆ When greeting, most Latinos expect body contact. Hugging and kissing on the check are acceptable for both the same sex and the opposite sex. The abrazo is commonplace—friends embrace and simultaneously pat each other on the back.

　　◆ When greeting, most middle easterners, especially Muslims, avoid body contact with the opposite sex, but men may embrace and kiss one anther. Women may do the same. When shaking hands, men should avoid pulling their hands away too quickly.

　　◆ When greeting most Americans, expect soma body contract. Women kiss once on each cheek and hug; men shake hands. Men may also hug and kiss women on the cheek if they are close friends.

　　◆ When greeting orthodox Jews, avoid body contact with the opposite sex.

　　3.2.2 Signs of affection

　　Sheree Bykofsky, an American writer, is thrilled when a cruise ship line purchases copies of her hew romantic travel guide, the best place to kiss in and around New York City. The cruise line plans to give the books as dinner favors during their special valentine’s cruise.

　　They invite Sheree on board to greet the passengers and autograph their copies. The Americans and Europeans delight in meeting the author and having her sign their books. However, when Sheree visits the tables of the Japanese passengers, most of them refuse to acknowledge her.

　　Japanese people do not approve of public body contact and, thus, have developed a complex system of bowing to express relationships. Touching a member of the opposite sex is particularly repugnant to their sensitivities; consequently, kissing in public is considered a disgraceful act.

　　The Japanese snubbed Sheree because the title of her book suggested behavior that did not conform to their standards of respect. They would not acknowledge her because, in their eyes, she promoted vulgarity.

　　Asians from countries other than Japan are equally disapproving when they see American men and women or two men to walk in public holding hands. However, when they practice this sign of friendship in the states, they are frequently mistaken for homosexuals. This shocks them.

　　Same-sex hand holding or walking arm-in-arm also occurs among Latinos, French, Spanish, Italians, Greeks, and middle easterners.

　　◆ Most Japanese people strongly disapprove of public expression of affection by males and females through kissing or any other form of body contact.

　　◆ Same-sex hand holding between Asians, middle-easterners, Latinos, or those from Mediterranean countries is a sign of friendship. Walking with arms on each other’s shoulders or with hands or arms linked also equates with camaraderie.

　　3.2.3 Physical contact

　　When Dorothy receives a wedding invitation to attend her Japanese neighbor’s wedding, she is thrilled. She has always admired the Yamashita family. She is very fond of lance, the about-to-be-married son, and feels extremely close to Grace, his mother. Dorothy feels honored to be included in the family festivities.

　　After the beautiful church ceremony, Dorothy stands in line to greet the bridal party. However, when Dorothy, a very affectionate person, steps forward to embrace the mother of the groom, Grace steps backward.

　　Dorothy feels rejected.

　　Even at such a joyous occasion as a wedding, Japanese customs about physical contact in public are not relaxed, even when taking place between the same sex. Truly, more formality is demonstrated in such situations. Consider the extreme reserve displayed at the 1993 royal wedding of crown prince Naruhito to Massako Owada. The physical acts of the royal couple consisted only of sipping sacred sake and making bows—no touching, no hugging, no kissing between the couple, certainly none by the wedding guests.

　　In Dorothy’s situation, even though she felt very close to Grace, she would have been more socially correct had she bowed her head slightly and then offered only verbal felicitations. In situations like these, it is best to observe the manner in which other wedding guests congratulate family members and then follow their example.

　　3.3 A comparative study of Chinese and American body language

　　A comparative study of Chinese and American body language shows a number of similarities; for example: men don’t hug or embrace when meeting; a handshake is the most common gesture that goes with a greeting; waving a hand to say “goodbye” is the same; a frown shows displeasure, and the wrinkling of one’s nose is a sign of dislike, disgust or disapproval; nodding means “yes”, and shaking one’s head means “no”; pouting has the same meaning—displeasure, bad humor, resentment; a pat on the back of a man or boy indicates approval, praise, encouragement; gritting one’s teeth may express anger, fury, or determination.

　　The charts on the following pages provide examples of some of the difference:

　　Different Body Language, Same Meaning

　　Meaning Body Language in China Body Language in U.S.

　　“Come here” (beckoning someone to come) hand extended toward person,open palm, palm down, withall fingers crooked in a beckoning motion hand extended toward person,closed hand, palm up, with forefinger only moving backand forth (in china this samegesture would be consideredoffensive by many)

　　“Shame on you!” (semi-joking gesture) forefinger of one hand extended, tip touches one’s own face several times quickly; similar to scratching,but with the forefinger straight (usually with the remark “shame on you!”) forefinger of each hand extended, palms down in front of one’s body; one forefinger makes several brushing movements over the back of the other forefinger

　　‘I’m very full” (after a meal) one or both hands open, lightly patting one’s own stomach hand raised to throat, fingersextended, palm down (oftenwith the remark “I’m full upto here.”)

　　Same Body Language in Tow Cultures

　　but with Different Meaning

　　Meaning in China Body Language Meaning in U. S.

　　anger, irritation, frustration, remorse stamping one’s foot impatience

　　thank you; mutual positive feelings speaker or performerclapping at same timeaudience applauds applauding oneself;improper, immodest

　　Curiosity, sometimes surprise staring, gaping considered impolite;makes people embarrassed,self-conscious

　　disapproval, hissing “shah” calling for silence

　　seldom used;occasionally adults may pat head of children to show affection; patting the head of a teenager or adult would cause displeasure and can be insulting pat on head giving comfort, consolation or encouragement; also shows affection

　　Body Language and Meaning in One Culture;

　　No Equivalent in Other Culture

　　Body Language Meaning in U.S.

　　chewing one’s fingernails emotional stress, worried, doesn’t know what to do

　　thumbing one’s nose (one thumb on tip of own nose, fingers curled and moving together) defiance, contempt

　　wagging one’s finger (forefinger of one hand raised, other fingers clasped, the raised forefinger is wagged from side to side) warning not to do something; indicating that what the other person is doing is wrong

　　thumb down (arm crooked in front of body, closed fist, thumb extended down, one or several downward movements) rejection of a proposal, idea, person; nonverbal way of saying a strong “no”

　　winking (quick closing of one eye, generally with a smile and slight nod) may show several feelings; understanding, approval, encouragement, trying to get across a message, solidarity

　　touching or pointing to tip of one’s own nose with raised forefinger “It’s me” “I’m the one” (to westerners, the gesture would seem slightly funny)

　　using an open hand to cover one’s mouth while speaking (generally used by older people) to show confidentiality and secrecy; sometimes no meaning

　　using both hands (when one would be enough) in offering something to a visitor or another person respect

　　(when one’s tea cup is being refilled by the host or hostess) putting one or both hands upright, palm open, beside the cup “Thank you”

　　upraised forefinger of each hand coming together in front of the body until the two touch boy and girl in love; a good match

　　The examples in the charts are by no means complete, but are enough to illustrate the diversity of body language and to show the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with a language.

　　4. Conclusion

　　The study of body language should be complementary to the study of language. The understanding of one should be helpful in the further understanding of the other. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situations body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what body language communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a sense, all body language should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading.

　　A word of general advice: when one communicates in a certain language, it is generally advisable to use the nonverbal behavior that goes with that particular language. Observation shows that a truly bilingual person switches his body language at the same time he switches languages. This makes communication easier and better。

　　Acknowledgement

　　The authors gratefully acknowledge Xu Mingwu, Prof for his assistance in this study.

　　Bibliography

　　[1] Fast, Julius. 1971. Body Language . Pocket Books, N.Y.

　　[2] Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan’en. 1997. The Practical Body Language. Hua Wen Press.

　　[3] Robinett, Betty W. 1978. Teaching English to speakers of other Language: Substance and Technique. McGraw-hill, N.Y.

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　　[5] Shen Minxian. 1999. The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School. Shanghai Education Vol. 12.

　　[6] Stern H. H. 1983. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. London: Oxford university press.

　　[7] 畢繼萬 《跨文化非語言交際》，1999，外語教學(xué)與研究出版。

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　　大學(xué)生英語畢業(yè)論文篇2

　　淺析語境與詞語的異常搭配

　　摘要：詞語的異常搭配是為了語言的某種語用修辭效果而刻意創(chuàng)造的，正確地把握這種偏離常規(guī)所創(chuàng)造的修辭效果，就必須根據(jù)語言的內(nèi)部語境和外部語境。語言之所以表情達(dá)意，是和語境不相分離的。本文就語境方面討論如何理解在人腦中產(chǎn)生新鮮刺激的異常搭配。

　　關(guān)鍵詞：語境 異常搭配

　　語言作為一個(gè)全民的交際工具，具有一套明確一致的規(guī)范，使語言使用者在這種共同遵守習(xí)慣化的語言規(guī)范下，順利清楚地表達(dá)接受，才能交流思想感情達(dá)到相互了解，但是說話者或言語的創(chuàng)造者往往故意違反這種語言規(guī)范，創(chuàng)造性地?fù)p壞習(xí)以為常的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的東西，從而達(dá)到某種“陌生化”效應(yīng)。人往往具有“獵奇”的心理特征，對(duì)語言也是如此。常見的，出現(xiàn)頻率高的語言形式常會(huì)失去“注意價(jià)值”和“記憶價(jià)值”，很難再引起人們的興致，而言語的發(fā)出者為了吸引接受者的注意力，有意識(shí)地采用一些“不合情理”“不合語法規(guī)則”而又耐人尋味的新鮮語句，使接受者體驗(yàn)最初表面的模糊不解到思路回轉(zhuǎn)，遷引聯(lián)系后的“豁然開朗”的過程，使語言取得好的修辭效果，“把我們從語言對(duì)我們的感覺所產(chǎn)生的麻醉效力中解脫出來。”(特倫斯.霍克斯：《結(jié)構(gòu)主義和符號(hào)學(xué)》)這種可稱為“突出”(foregrounding)語言現(xiàn)象可發(fā)生在語言的各個(gè)層面，如語音層，字音層，句法層，詞匯層，語義層，甚至是在方言，語域中出現(xiàn)。(胡壯麟，《語言學(xué)教程》)本篇集中討論是詞匯層面上的詞匯的異常搭配現(xiàn)象。這是從詞與詞之前的橫向組合來看。我們知道，詞與詞之間的搭配是受到語法限制和語義限制的。合乎語法規(guī)則和語義規(guī)則的是常規(guī)搭配，反之，則是異常搭配。在一首經(jīng)典流行歌曲中有這么一句歌詞：“……愛過你的愛，痛過你的痛，所以快樂著你的快樂，幸福著你的幸福……”乍一看，這樣的動(dòng)賓搭配似乎都不符合常規(guī)，違反了選擇限制條件，無論從語法上看還是從語義上看。但這樣的異常搭配反而給人以陌生感新鮮感，耐人回味，引起人們興趣，進(jìn)一步思考“愛過……愛，痛過……痛，快樂著……快樂，幸福著……幸福”的深義，也是這首歌傳唱至今的“秘方”之一。

　　我們會(huì)認(rèn)為異常搭配是用詞不當(dāng)，會(huì)影響到語言交際，但實(shí)際上把這種有意沖破搭配規(guī)則放在特定的語境中理解，則產(chǎn)生了“別有洞天”的修辭效果。我們知道，語言環(huán)境對(duì)理解語言至關(guān)重要。早在20世紀(jì)30年代，波蘭人類學(xué)家Melinowski首度提出術(shù)語“context of situation”，他認(rèn)為，語言是“行為的方式”即“言有所為”，不是“思想的信號(hào)”即“言有所述”。“話語和環(huán)境相互緊密地結(jié)合在一起，語言環(huán)境對(duì)于語言來說是必不可少的。”后來英國語言學(xué)Firth繼承和發(fā)展了他的觀點(diǎn)，把“context”的含義加以引申，認(rèn)為不僅一句話的上句或下句，一段話的上段或下段是“context”而且語言與社會(huì)環(huán)境之間的關(guān)系也叫“context”。結(jié)合語境來詮釋語言，這對(duì)如何理解詞語的異常搭配似乎更為重要。接受者借助語言環(huán)境，包括所提供的上下文聯(lián)系和非語言環(huán)境，包括社會(huì)場合情景，文化語境等，發(fā)揮想象和聯(lián)想，將這些看似令人費(fèi)解的組合重新加以詮釋。所謂異常組合的“異常修辭效果”也只有建立在語境的基礎(chǔ)上才能得到認(rèn)可。反之，它們也只能保持語法或語義的“不合常理”“不合邏輯”而無深義。下面就分別從語言語境和非語言語境來闡釋詞語的異常搭配是如何做到“無理之妙”的。

　　1.語言語境和詞語的異常搭配

　　語言語境，也可說是對(duì)語境的狹義理解，它指言語內(nèi)部環(huán)境，既是口頭上的前言后語的關(guān)系，書面上的前后文的關(guān)系。孤立的詞語只有詞典意義，不能表示信息的豐富內(nèi)涵。某些詞語，看似文不對(duì)題，或某些詞語組合搭配看似矛盾，但聯(lián)系了一定的上下文理解，其深層含義往往比“常規(guī)搭配”更具有注意價(jià)值和記憶價(jià)值。

　　(1) I had no outlook, but an uplook rathe. My place in society was at the bottom.

　　我沒有人生觀，倒是有“向上爬觀”。我在社會(huì)上處于底層地位。

　　(Jake London: What Life Means to Me)

　　uplook是從前面的outlook仿造而來的，沒有outlook，uplook無從理解，這個(gè)nonce word 是語言顯得非常生動(dòng)，表現(xiàn)出詼諧幽默的意味，取得了新奇別致的效果。

　　(2)I temped all His servitors, but to find my own betrayal in their constancy,

　　In faith to Him their fickleness to me.

　　Their traitorons trueness, and their loyal deceit.

　　(Francis Thompson, The Hound of Heaven)

　　我考驗(yàn)了他所有的侍從，結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)

　　他們對(duì)我不講信義而對(duì)他一如既往，

　　他們對(duì)他忠心耿耿而對(duì)我反復(fù)無常，

　　他們奸詐的忠實(shí)，忠實(shí)的狡詐。

　　如果我們單看traitorons trueness 和loyal deceit 是兩組語義矛盾的搭配，是異常搭配。但結(jié)合上文，便不難看出，侍從對(duì)外人不講信義反復(fù)無常，對(duì)主人忠心耿耿，一如既往，不正是一種“奸詐的忠實(shí)，忠實(shí)的狡詐”嗎?這樣的組合搭配不僅在形式上以超常新穎的面目吸引我們，而且對(duì)語言所表達(dá)的內(nèi)容也起了積極作用，使我們?cè)谠忈屍洚惓Ｐ缘耐瑫r(shí)，更好的理解了作者“如此用心”的深意。

　　(3)《中國青年報(bào)》(1990年某日)上一篇報(bào)導(dǎo)登出“最長壽的青年李亞飛……”“最長壽”和“青年”在沒有任何語境的提示下是一組完全不相容的兩個(gè)詞語：既然是“最長壽”的又何來“青年”呢，這就引起讀者的好奇心，于是在下文中揭開這個(gè)迷：“這個(gè)李亞飛……從水中救起了30個(gè)人的生命，俗云，救人一命，延年益壽，30個(gè)生命的延續(xù)，你說李亞飛的壽命有多長呢……”讀到這里，我們才恍然大悟。作者用這樣不合邏輯的矛盾搭配，使讀者對(duì)李的英雄事跡記憶更深刻，也更突出文章所要宏揚(yáng)的舍己為人之崇高品質(zhì)。

　　2.非語言語境與詞語的異常搭配

　　非語言語境也可稱為外部語境，它包括社會(huì)歷史背景，包括現(xiàn)實(shí)社會(huì)環(huán)境，包括時(shí)代、民族、地區(qū)，包括文化傳統(tǒng)，生活習(xí)俗，包括地點(diǎn)、場合、對(duì)象，還包括使用語言的人物、身份、處境，心情等。在理解詞語的異常搭配的過程中，更不能脫離非語言語境。因?yàn)楫惓４钆涞膭?chuàng)造是一個(gè)有意識(shí)有目的的活動(dòng)，發(fā)話者或作者不憑空隨意將兩個(gè)毫無關(guān)聯(lián)的詞語拼湊在一起，為了“創(chuàng)新”而創(chuàng)新，即使這樣的異常搭配也是毫無意義的。它們必將根據(jù)具體語言環(huán)境，根據(jù)某種文化根源的理據(jù)，根據(jù)他自己當(dāng)時(shí)的心情等“有感而發(fā)”，只有將詞語的異常搭配結(jié)合語境考慮，它才具有討論的價(jià)值。所以特殊語境是詞語異常搭配的基礎(chǔ)，也是檢驗(yàn)其修辭效果的條件。下面我們分別來看幾個(gè)例子。

　　(4) “蜜蜂是在釀蜜，也是在釀造生活;不是為自己，而是為了人類釀造最甜的生活。”

　　(《荔枝蜜》)

　　“釀造”是“利用發(fā)酵作用制造”，按常規(guī)搭配，它只能和“蜂蜜，酒，醋，醬油”等搭配，不能和“生活”搭配，而這里為什么能用這樣的超常搭配，而不選擇“建設(shè)生活”這個(gè)讀者可以直接接受的組合搭配呢?這就要和外部語境聯(lián)系起來理解。首先，作者和讀者都具有這樣的常識(shí)：他們都知道，蜂蜜和美好生活，釀蜜和建設(shè)美好生活有兩個(gè)共同點(diǎn)：第一，蜜甜，美好生活也甜，都令人舒心。第二，蜂蜜與美好生活的都是長期辛勞創(chuàng)造積累的成果。這是兩個(gè)相互能聯(lián)系的客觀基礎(chǔ)。僅此并不夠，還需通過想象和聯(lián)想將兩者聯(lián)系起來，這是心理基礎(chǔ)，所以客觀基礎(chǔ)和心理基礎(chǔ)構(gòu)成的外部語境，為實(shí)現(xiàn)這個(gè)異常搭配的特殊修辭效果提供了條件和可能性。

　　(5) The talk about raising taxes was a red flag to many voters.

　　此例中，the talk was a red flag是異常搭配，在語義上是不合邏輯的，red flag是來自西班牙斗牛的民俗，公?？匆娂t布就處于激動(dòng)、憤怒的感情狀態(tài)。該搭配通過文化背景知識(shí)讓人產(chǎn)生聯(lián)想，形象地表現(xiàn)出“關(guān)于增稅的談?wù)?rdquo;對(duì)選民的刺激，就像red flag 對(duì)公牛產(chǎn)生刺激一樣。The talk was a red flag 的聯(lián)想的展開離不開red flag 所出的文化世界，就這個(gè)異常搭配的創(chuàng)造來說，它不僅僅服從于具體語境，而且還服從于文化指令，將語義寓于某種形象之中。而就其效果來說，正是文化為我們提供外部語境，使我們把握這個(gè)異常搭配的實(shí)際意旨。

　　所以在非語言語境中文化語境的影響力是不容忽視的，當(dāng)今社會(huì)中出現(xiàn)的許多新穎的詞語異常搭配也是社會(huì)文化語境的一種體現(xiàn)。也只有透過社會(huì)文化風(fēng)潮這面透視鏡，我們才能揭示出這些新鮮詞組隱藏在不合理的字面意義下的合理性。再如：在經(jīng)歷“紅色年代”的漢語詞匯，如今又步入了一個(gè)充滿生機(jī)的綠色時(shí)代：綠色辦公，綠色電腦，綠色希望，綠色電視機(jī)，綠色冰箱等。這些新鮮的組合搭配在“綠色文化”進(jìn)入社會(huì)主流之前是不能接受或是不合常理的。究其原因，主要是環(huán)境文化的影響。高度發(fā)達(dá)的餓工業(yè)文明，讓人類的環(huán)境付出了高昂的代價(jià)，資源面臨枯竭，污染日益嚴(yán)重，生態(tài)嚴(yán)重破壞，人和自然的矛盾空前尖銳。有了這樣的文化背景，我們就能正確理解這些異常搭配的真實(shí)含義了，同時(shí)，它們也在進(jìn)一步推動(dòng)所體現(xiàn)文化的充實(shí)和發(fā)展。

　　結(jié)語

　　孤立地看一個(gè)詞，一個(gè)句子，是看不出好壞，優(yōu)劣，得失的。語言運(yùn)用得好不好是對(duì)語境而言的。創(chuàng)造者為了達(dá)到某種修辭效果，創(chuàng)造某種突出價(jià)值，偏離突出語言的常規(guī)組合方法和規(guī)范，對(duì)語言進(jìn)行創(chuàng)造性的再組合，其過程離不開語言本身的語境和外部語境的參與。同樣，在接受者對(duì)這些改造后的搭配組合進(jìn)行意義的重新建構(gòu)過程中，也必須結(jié)合各種語境所提供的信息，將這些看似費(fèi)解的詞語后的語用意義挖掘出來。從中也可看出，異常搭配絕不是胡亂搭配，絕不是脫離語境一時(shí)興起而玩的文字游戲。它的產(chǎn)生和運(yùn)用只能在特定的語境中，否則那就成了真正的“異常”了。

　　參考文獻(xiàn)：

　　寸鎮(zhèn)東， 《語境與修辭》貴州人民出版社，1996

　　錢冠連，　《漢語文化語用學(xué)》清華大學(xué)出版社，1997

　　鄭榮馨，　《語言得體藝術(shù)》書海出版社，2001

　　彭增安，　《語用　修辭　文化》學(xué)林出版社，1998

　　徐鵬，　　《英語辭格》商務(wù)印書館，1996

　　曹京淵，　　異常搭配的語義語用分析，《福建外語》2000，3

　　白健，　　文學(xué)語言的“陌生化”與詞語的超常搭配　1999，9